Attachment
and child development依附關係與孩子的發展
Last updated: 10
Aug 2021
轉載來源 NSPCC
https://learning.nspcc.org.uk/child-health-development/attachment-early-years
# What
is attachment theory and why is it important?依附理論與重要性
Attachment is a
clinical term used to describe "a lasting psychological connectedness
between human beings” (Bowlby, 1997)1.
In particular,
attachment theory highlights the importance of a child’s emotional bond with
their primary caregivers.
Disruption to or loss
of this bond can affect a child emotionally and psychologically into adulthood,
and have an impact on their future relationships.
Only specially trained
and qualified professionals should assess a child’s attachment style. However,
it’s important for all adults working with children to understand what
attachment is and know how to help parents and carers become attuned to their
child’s needs. You might do this by working with them directly, or by
signposting families to other appropriate services. In the long term, this can
help improve wellbeing and provide positive outcomes for both the child and
their caregivers.
# Understanding
attachment in the early years 依附在兒童早期的發展
Children can form
attachments with more than one caregiver, but the bond with the people who have
provided close care from early infancy is the most important and enduring
(Bowlby, 1997)2.
It’s important that
parents and carers are attuned and responsive to their baby’s needs and are
able to provide appropriate care. This includes recognising if their baby is
hungry, feeling unwell or in need of closeness and affection (Howe, 2011)3.
Forming an attachment
is something that develops over time for a child, but parents and carers can
start to form an emotional bond with their child before they are born.
Sometimes a parent or carer may have difficulty forming this bond, for example
if they are experiencing mental health issues or don’t have an effective
support network.
On this page, you’ll
find information on:
·
why attachment is important
·
how children develop
attachment
·
attachment issues, insecure
and secure attachment and behaviours to look out for
·
how trauma can affect
attachment
·
how you can support parents
and carers to develop a bond with their child.
Need
specific information?
Our information
specialists are here to help you find research, guidance and best practice.
# Stages
of attachment
The first two years of
a child’s life are the most critical for forming attachments (Prior and Glaser,
2006)4.
During this period,
children develop an ‘internal working model’ that shapes the way they view
relationships and operate socially. This can affect their sense of trust in
others, self-worth and their confidence interacting with others (Bowlby, 1997)5.
# When
are attachments formed?依附怎麼形成的?
Attachments are formed
in different ways during the phases of a child’s development.
Antenatal
(before birth)
During the antenatal
period, parents and carers can form a bond with their child. Any bonds formed
before birth can have a positive impact on the relationship between babies and
their caregivers once the child is born (Condon and Corkindale, 1997)6.
Birth
until 6 weeks
This is sometimes
referred to as the pre-attachment phase because the baby doesn’t appear to show
an attachment to any specific caregiver. However, parents and carers who
provide a nurturing environment and are responsive to their babies needs can
lay the foundation for secure attachments to form (Bowlby, 1997)7.
6
weeks until 6-8 months
During this stage of
their development, a baby might start to show a preference for their primary
and secondary caregivers (often the mother and father).
6-8
months until 18 months-2 years
During this
period a child begins to show a strong attachment to their primary caregivers. Babies
start to develop separation anxiety during this phase and can become upset when
their caregiver leaves, even for short periods (Bowlby, 1997)8.
18
months – 2 years onwards
At this point children
are likely to become less dependent on their primary caregiver, particularly if
they feel secure and confident the caregiver will return and be responsive in
times of need (Bowlby, 1997)9.
# Types
of attachment依附的形式
A child’s need for
attachment is part of the process of seeking safety and security from their caregiver.
(1) What does secure attachment look like?安全型依附
In secure
caregiver-child relationships, the caregiver is usually sensitive and tuned in
to the child’s needs. They are able to provide care that is predictably loving,
responsive and consistent.
Young children who have
formed a secure attachment to their caregiver may display the following
patterns of behaviour during times of stress or exploration:
·
proximity maintenance –
wanting to be near their primary caregiver
·
safe haven - returning to
their primary caregiver for comfort and safety if they feel afraid or
threatened
·
secure base – treating their
primary caregiver as a base of security from which they can explore the
surrounding environment. The child feels safe in the knowledge that they can
return to their secure base when needed
·
separation distress -
experiencing anxiety in the absence of their primary caregiver. They are upset
when their caregiver leaves, but happy to see them and easily comforted when
they return
(Ainsworth et al, 2015)10.
Benefits
of secure attachment
When caregivers react
sensitively to ease their child’s distress and help them regulate their
emotions, it has a positive impact on the child’s neurological, physiological
and psychosocial development (Howe, 2011)11.
Children with secure
attachments are more likely to develop emotional intelligence, good social
skills and robust mental health (Howe, 2011)12.
(2) Effects of insecure attachment不安全型依附的結果
Not receiving comfort
and security in the early years can have a negative effect on children’s
neurological, psychological, emotional and physical development and functioning
(Newman, 2015)13.
Babies and young
children who have attachment issues may be more likely to develop behavioural
problems such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or conduct
disorder (Fearon et al, 2010)14.
Children who have
attachment issues can have difficulty forming healthy relationships when they
grow up. This may be because their experiences have taught them to believe that
other people are unreliable or untrustworthy (Bowlby, 1997)15.
Adults with attachment
issues are at a higher risk of entering into volatile relationships and having
poor parenting skills, behavioural difficulties and mental health problems
(Howe, 2011)16.
> Find out more about how trauma affects child brain
development
Attachment
issues
# Factors
affecting attachment影響依附的重要因素
Some circumstances can
make it more challenging for a child and their caregivers to form a pattern of
secure attachment. These may include:
·
abuse, maltreatment and trauma
experienced by the parent or child
·
parental mental health
difficulties
·
parental substance misuse
·
the child having multiple care
placements
·
parents being separated from
their baby just after birth, for example if the baby is receiving neonatal care
·
stress such as having a low
income, being a single parent, or being a young parent
·
bereavement or loss of another
caregiver that a child had an attachment with
(Bowlby, 1989)17.
# Signs
that a child may have attachment issues依附問題的徵兆
Children’s behaviour
can be influenced by a wide range of circumstances and emotions. Indicators
that a baby or toddler might not have a secure attachment with their
caregiver will emerge as a pattern of behaviour over time, particularly during
moments of stress or exploration. This pattern might include:
·
being fearful or avoidant of a
parent or carer
·
becoming extremely distressed
when their carer leaves them, even for a short amount of time
·
rejecting their caregiver’s
efforts to calm, soothe, and connect with them
·
not seeming to notice or care
when their caregiver leaves the room or when they return
·
being passive or non-responsive
to their carer
·
seeming to be depressed or angry
·
not being interested in playing
with toys or exploring their environment
(Howe, 2011)18.
As children
with attachment issues get older, these behaviour patterns might evolve.
As well as being evident during times of stress, some behaviours may start to
become obvious at other times. These may include the child:
·
finding it difficult to ask for
help
·
struggling to form positive
relationships with adults and peers
·
struggling to concentrate
·
struggling to calm themselves
down
·
both demanding and rejecting
attention or support at the same time
·
becoming quickly or
disproportionately angry or upset, at times with no clear triggers
·
appearing withdrawn or
disengaged from activities
·
daydreaming, being hyperactive
or constantly fidgeting or moving
(Mentally Healthy
Schools, 2020)19.
If you think a child
may have attachment issues, you should refer them to a suitably trained health
and social care professional for a full assessment. You should follow your
organisation’s procedures to make a health and social care referral, or contact
your local authority children’s social care services.
# Trauma
and attachment創傷對依附的影響
The signs of attachment
issues can be similar to indicators that a child is experiencing other
challenges, such as:
·
mental health problems
·
additional needs
·
abuse and neglect.
This means it’s
important to consider everything that’s going on in a child’s life and make
sure they and their family are provided with appropriate support.
Think about all your
previous experiences with the child and their caregivers, to help you build a
clear picture of their relationships and rganizat any concerning patterns of rganiza.
The
impact of trauma and attachment
Children who have
experienced abuse, neglect and trauma might develop coping strategies that can
make it more complicated to rganizat attachment issues.
For example, one sign
of secure attachment is that children see their caregiver as a secure base to
explore from. But children who have experienced neglect, for
example, might display independent rganiza in order to protect themselves from
the emotional pain of not having their needs met (Marvin et al, 2002)20.
It is also possible for
a child to develop an attachment to someone who is maltreating them (Blizard
& Bluhm, 1994)21.
As well as affecting
attachment, experiencing trauma can have an impact on a child’s brain
development. Children might need extra support to help strengthen the
architecture of their brain.
> Find out more about how trauma affects child brain
development
What
to do if you’re worried that a child is experiencing or at risk of abuse or
neglect
If a child is in immediate danger, call the
police on 999.
If you’re worried about
a child but they are not in immediate danger, you should share your concerns.
·
Follow your rganization’s child protection procedures
without delay. These should provide clear
guidelines on the steps you need to take if a child discloses abuse. They will
state who in your rganization has responsibility for safeguarding or child
protection and who you should report your concerns to.
·
Contact your local child protection services. Their contact details can be found on the website for the local
authority the child lives in.
·
Contact the police. They will assess the situation and take the appropriate action
to protect the child.
·
Contact the NSPCC Helpline on 0808 800 5000 or by emailing help@nspcc.org.uk. Our trained professionals will talk through your concerns with
you, give you expert advice and take action to protect the child as
appropriate. This may include making a referral to the local authority.
Supporting
children and families
Building
positive relationships
It’s important for
anyone who works with children and families to support parents and carers in
building positive relationships with their child. Having positive interaction
and play with caregivers can help a child’s brain to develop healthily.
> See our early years resources which you can share
with parents and caregivers
Video feedback
programmes can also be used by specially trained social care professionals to
help caregivers improve their interactions with their child. This involves
caregivers being filmed when they are interacting with their child and then
watching the recording with a trained practitioner, who gives them feedback and
helps them build on their strengths.
Support
for parents and carers
If parents are
struggling with their own issues, it may make it harder for them to bond with
their child and provide consistant and responsive care. They may have:
·
experienced abuse of trauma
themselves
·
drug and/or alcohol
dependencies
·
mental health issues.
> Find out more
about parental mental health
> Learn more about
parental substance misuse
Services
for children and families
The NSPCC has many
services that children and families can be referred to, from supporting parents
and carers in taking care of their children to preventing sexual abuse and
overcoming abuse.
Our services might be
suitable for children and families you are working with:
·
Pregnancy
in Mind helps parents who are at
risk of or experiencing mild to moderate anxiety and depression during
pregnancy. The service helps build parents’ capacity to provide sensitive,
responsive care to their babies and keep these skills developed postnatally and
as their children develop
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